THE QUR'AN DILEMMA

THE QUR'AN DILEMMA

By:  The Quran.com

Preface

A book of terror or a book of peace?  An inspired text or a political agenda?

To non-Muslims who want to unravel the mysteries of Islam, this book presents information that Islamic resources rarely disclose-to allow those seeking the truth to comprehend the full picture with all its outlines, colors, and dimensions.

To Muslims who seek genuine choices far from the culture of “indoctrination” this book opens a world of understanding to them, so that they can decide for themselves their intellectual and spiritual paths.

Approach of this Book

The commentary provided in this book examines the Qur’an from three distinct perspectives:

First, it systematically investigates and critically analyzes the historical, factual, and linguistic difficulties that the text of the Qur’an presents to its reader.

The book then investigates the annulment of certain verses.  Although the text of the Qur’an is said to have been in a Preserved Tablet from the beginning of time, some of its verses abrogate, or nullify, other verses and render them ineffectual.

The third issue that this book address is the problem of variant readings of the verses.  There were many versions of the Qur’an prior to the act of ‘Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph or successor after Muhammad, to force a codified version - the ‘Uthmanic codex – on Muslims and burn all the rest.  In addition, this official Qur’an (c. AH 34/AD 654) did not have dots and diacritical marks in a language that relies heavily on them.  The lack of such markings led to a variety of ways to read and understand the Qur’an in Arabic.

This book also contains several articles to help the reader weigh and understand the issues surrounding the Qur’an such as:  The treatment of women, the compilation process of the Qur’an, the chronological sequences of its suras, the treatment of people of other faiths, just to name a few.

Introduction

Religion is man’s systematic search for God and truth.  It is a collection of beliefs and thoughts regarding the deity of God and His relationship to man.  When one is considering the claims of a religion, one must consider the source of the authority upon which that religion bases its claims.

According to Islamic doctrine, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah and the “Seal of the

Prophets” on whom the Qur’an was revealed through a heavenly intermediary.  This

intermediary is called “the Faithful Spirit” and other times “Holy Spirit”.  After Muhammad’s migration to Median, this intermediary became known as “Gabriel”.  (See the article “Muhammad’s Jibril” Page 39).

The Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad in the Arabic language.  Muhammad gave this revelation to a people group that, previous to this time in history, had no heavenly revealed books, and had never had a prophet sent to them.  The Qur’an makes the claim within its verses that it is part of the series of the Holy Books, e.g., the Torah, the Gospel.

This period of revelation took place over the course of twenty-three years (AD 610-632), during which Muhammad declared himself a prophet.  After the death of Muhammad, his Companions gathered the Qur’an into a book.  (See the article “Complication of the Qur’an on page 49).

Names of the Qur’an (Page 22)

Muslims have called their most holy book several different names, each with its own origin and meaning.

The Qur’an

The common name for the holy book of Islam is the Qur’an.

1.      Qur’an comes from the word qara’, meaning “to recite.”

2.      Qur’an is considered a derivative of the word qari, meaning “to gather”.

3.      Qur’an is derived from qarantu, meaning “to pair one thing to another” or “to merge them together.”[The suras, verses, and letters were merged together to form the whole.]

4.      Qur’an is derived from qara’in because its verses confirm one another and, in many ways, look the same, hence they are similar.

5.      Qur’an is a unique proper noun, not borrowed from other know sources.  It is applied to the words revealed to Muhammad.

In the Qur’an the verb qara’a appears whenever Muhammad shares a revelation.

Al-Mushaf (Page 23)

A common name for the Qur’an is al-Mushaf (“the Codex”), the plural of which is masahif.  According to an Islamic narrative, the word has an Abyssinian root.

Al-Furguan

The famous name al-Furquan (“the Criterion”) is used considerably but is less common than al-Qur’an and al-Mushaf.  It is mentioned when dealing with other holy books.  This phrase is used to describe the books of Moses, The Torah (the first five books of the Old Testament) and the New Testament.

Al-Furguan (Semitic Root) “to save or to redeem”

Other Names of the Qur’an

·         Al-kitab (“the Book”) in Q 2.2

·         AlWahi (“the Inspiration”) in Q 21.45

·         Al-Dhikr (“the Reminder”) in Q 15.9

In the books of Qur’anic science, there are fifty-five names given to the Qur’an, including the following examples:

·         Nur (“Light”) in Q 4.174

·         Shifa (“Healing”) in Q 17.82 Q41.44

·         Maw’iza (“Guidance”) in Q 3.138, Q 10.57

Structure of the Qur’an (Pages 24-26)

There are four main structural elements of the Qur’an:

Al-Qur’an is the book

Al-Sura is a chapter of the Qur’an and is equivalent to a poem.

Al-Aya is similar to a line of poetry and will be called a “verse” in this book

Al-Fasila is the end of the verse and acts as the rhyme.

The Sura (Page 24)

The sura is a chapter of the Qur’an.  Most of the verses that mention the word sura belong to the later period of Muhammad’s activity, when he was mainly in Medina.

According to the “Uthmanic codex” which is the most widely used Qur’an, there are 114 suras.  A sura may often have more than one name.

 The Aya (Page 25)

The word aya is sometimes translated as “verse”.  It’s Arabic meaning is “the mark.”

Later on, the expression aya came to mean a verse of the Qur’an.  Despite the fact that the word aya is repeated throughout the Qur’an, it rarely appears in the Meccan verses.

Disagreements about the totals of suras (Chapters) mentioned earlier similarly occur with the number of verses in the Qur’an.

Al-Fasila (Pages 24-26)

Al-fasila is the last word in a verse of the Qur’an.  These fasilas resemble the rhymes in the poetic lines of Arabic poem anthologies.  The fasila often had to be taken into consideration during the composition of the current Arabic Qur’an to preserve the poetic qualities of the sentence.  This practice led to weak, irregular, or illogical construction of some of the syntax and sentence structures.

Qur’anic Challenge (Pages 26-28)

Muslims view the Qur’an as a miraculous text.  Muslims believe that it is impossible to bring forth a Qur’an that is equal to the one they currently have.  Any attempt to exactly duplicate Muhammad’s composition, would be futile, since his compositions derived from his own unique educational reserve, psychological experiences, and personal language.  The one who opposes the Qur’an must, first of all, have spirituality exactly like that of Muhammad, and have intelligence like his and imagination like his.

Muslims believe that the beauty of the Qur’an language is a given.  The Meccan texts are fiery and incitant, whereas The Medinan texts are dry prose. (See the article “Chronological Sequence of the Quran” on page 65).

Lane’s view is commonly held by the great Arab author al-Ra safi:

What is unique to the Qur’an and a characteristic that it does not share with the rest of the heavenly and earthly books is:  redundancy.  The Qur’an is indebted to redundancy for its effect on the souls of those who read and hear it.

The Qur’an “The Book of Influence Through Redundancy.”

The Quraysh Opinion of the Qur’an (Page 28)

Even though the first suras of the Qur’an were recited in the language of the tribe of Quraysh, the majority of Muhammad’s tribesmen were not impressed.  In fact, the initial reaction to the Qur’an by the people of the Quraysh was not particularly favorable.

·         “These are but old folks ‘tales”

·         The Qur’an was composed by “a poet”

They also dismissed Muhammad as:

·         “an obvious sorcerer,” “a magician, liar”

·         “a soothsayer”

·         “possessed,” “mad”

·         “bewitched”

The Islamic Da’wa succeeded by the sword, not by the miracle of the Qur’an.

A.     Source of Studying the history of Muhammad and Early Islam (Page 28)

The Qur’an is the record of Muhammad’s call (Da’wa) of others to Islam.  This ancient book helps us to understand the personality of Muhammad.  We also discover through the Qur’an how Muhammad viewed his context and how he dealt with it and produced his doctrines toward those who gave allegiance to him and those who opposed him.  (See the article “The Qur’an and People of Other Faiths” on page 133).

B.      Source for Understanding the Islamic Context

According to Islamic theory, the Qur’an is Allah’s address to the Muslims, the foundation of Islamic teachings, and the source of legislations.  It is the educational book that feeds the Islamic mind and defines for the Muslim the philosophy of life and how to understand oneself as well as others.  For Muslims, the Qur’an is the tool that shapes their world view.

Facts about the Qur’an (Page 29)

Critical Analysis

Perhaps the most sacrosanct belief of the Islamic faith is that the Qur’an is a miraculous book.  It is believed to be the ultimate miracle of Islam:  not only a book sent down from heaven but a perfect book in language and structure that could never be replicated by mankind.  As such, the Qur’an is not to be challenged.

To say that Jibril come with the content of the Qur’an to Muhammad and the latter expressed these meanings in his own language is a potentially dangerous theory.  Such a theory would open the door wide to the critical analysis of the Qur’an, because it would consider the Qur’an to be Muhammad’s text and not a divine book.  If the Qur’an, in terms of structure, style, and formulation, is a text authorized by Muhammad and not a text from Allah, it means it is a man-made book, subject to research and criticism.

While scholars throughout history have attempted to critically analyze the Qur’an, most have been silenced by a religion that violently rejects analysis.  If the Qur’an is indeed a holy and miraculous book, it should stand up to scrutiny.

Muhammad’s Jibril

Jibril in the Islamic narratives is the angelic messenger who carried (transported) the revelations to Muhammad.  Despite Jibril’s vital role in establishing Islam as a religion, Muhammad was silent about him for years.  Jibril is not mentioned at all by Muhammad in the Meccan portion of the Qur’an.  This spiritual messenger is not identified by Muhammad until thirteen years later, after about eighty-six suras of revelation had already been given.  Jibril’s name appears for the first time in sura al-Baqara, where Muhammad accused the Jews of being enemies of Jibril (Gabriel) (Q 2.997-98).

The Trance

The sirat literature (biography books) record that Muhammad suffered from strange trancelike episodes.  These trances actually led Muhammad to question whether he had a touch of madness.  These symptoms then became explained as manifestations connected with the descending of inspiration.

Muhammad’s Jibril (continued)

“The bell is the pipes of Satan.” If “the bell is the pipes of Satan,” Why does Muhammad hear it ringing?

Muhammad treated these symptoms with al-ruqua (“spell-removing prayers or chant”).

Muhammad and the Pre-Islamic (Jahiliya) Divination (Pages 40-42)

When the above-mentioned symptoms started to appear in Muhammad, a great anxiety overtook and controlled him.  When he compared what he was going through with the condition of the Arab diviners, he thought he too had become a diviner.

In the Arabian Peninsula, divination was a common religious practice as well as a variety of other magical practices in use at the time, such as al-ruqua and astrology.  The religious men would often belong to the priestly group, known as the ruqya performer (al-raqi) or the astrologer.  Such a diviner could make contact with hidden, spiritual forces.  The priests had a particular style in their talk while prophesying and divining known as al-saj [rhymed prose].  Their saj was characterized by the use of ambiguous words and general expressions that could be interpreted in a variety of opposing ways.

The diviner was seen as one who would be inspired with the revelation by the “satan of the diviner.”  The Arabs believed that this satan would eavesdrop “on heaven and bring what he heard and recite it.  Then the diviner would recite to the people what his satan had recited to him.”  Based on this imagery Muhammad believed that every man had his companion satan.  He said ‘Even I, except that Allah aided me against him,’”.

Khadija’s Verdict (Pages 42-43)

She said, “O cousin [husband], be steadfast and of good cheer, for by Allah he is indeed an angel and not a satan.”

Conclusion (Pages 43-44)

The testimony of Khadija did not cure Muhammad of this phenomenon, which plagued him through his adult life.  He continued hearing the voices and seeing the shadows.

After Khadija convinced Muhammad that what appears to him is the deliverer of revelation, Muhammad refers to this being as the “Holy Spirit” (Q 16.102) and calls him “a noble apostle” (Q 81.19).  He did not mention Jibril’s name as the one delivering the revelation until he moved to Medina.

This eventual declaration concerning Jibril must have resulted from Muhammad’s contact with the Jews.  The name (Jibril/Gabriel) is a Hebrew name mentioned in an Old Testament book (Daniel 8:16; 9:21).

Therefore, Jibril, in his true nature was those voices and images that would come to Muhammad.  These manifestations were transformed by the suggestive power of Khadija into an angel who later could have become Gabriel through the influence of Jewish or Christian acquaintances.

Notes: (Pages 44-45)

Complication of the Qur’an

According to Islamic beliefs, the Qur’an was revealed when Muhammad began proclaiming his faith and reciting portions of it for his followers to memorize.  When the Meccans persisted in rejecting Muhammad and his followers, they migrated to Medina around AD 621.  This migration is known in Islamic sources as the Hijra, or Hegira.  Then in Medina, another portion of the Qur’an was given.

One Muslim scholar explained that “Muhammad did not compile the Qur’an in a book because he anticipated abrogation of some of its rulings or recitations.”

A partial writing of the Qur’an took place in Medina, which means the Meccan portion of the Qur’an (two-thirds of the Qur’anic material) was never written.

The only possible reference suggesting the existence of a scribe at that time mentions “Abd Allah Ibn Abi Sarh, who recounted that he wrote the Qur’an for Muhammad in Mecca.  Later, he broke off his association with Muhammad and joined the Quraysh after the falsehood of Muhammad’s claims to prophethood became apparent to him.

It seems that the meaning of “compilation” here is actually memorization.  Those who “compiled” the first Qur’an whether in writing or by memorization, gathered it in part, not in whole; there was no written text yet and Muhammad was still amending it by adding to parts of the Qur’an, abrogating some, and removing others.

Therefore, throughout the Meccan period and during some of the Medina periods, memory was the main tool to record the Qur’anic passages.

Abu Bakr and U’mar’s Compilation (to complete, perform what is due) )[Pages 50-54]

Two major compilation assembled during two different caliphs but under the direction of the same committee leader, eventually produced the first rudimentary codex.  The primary purpose of the first compilation was to collect and preserve manuscripts to ensure the survival of the Qur’an.

Zayd’s First Compilation (Pages 50-52)

The first compilation of the Qur’an was done by Abu Bakr, who succeeded Muhammad in leading the Muslims (AH 11-13/AD 632-634).  He fought a series of wars against the tribes that refused to submit to the authority of Muslims.

Abu Bakr assigned the duty of compiling the Qur’an to Zayd because Zayd used to write the Qur’an for Muhammad.

Zayd’s First Compilation (continued) (Pages 50-52)

I followed the trace of the Qur’an from the chests of men [meaning: what the men had committed to memory], the palm leaves, leather pieces, ribs, and pieces of stone and pottery.

The testimony of two people was required to confirm a piece was Qur’anic.  The process of compiling lasted about a year.  After completing the task, Zayd handed it over to Abu Bakr.  Then U’mar received it when he became the second successor (Caliph) following Muhammad’s death.  The manuscripts ended up with his daughter, Hafsa, after his death.

‘Uthman’s Compilation

Multiple masahif (codices) and variant readings escalated conflicts among Muslims.  To help reduce these tensions and unify the different Muslim groups, Utman Ibn ‘Affan (thired Caliph) established a compilation committee to create one standard Qur’an for all.

Zayd’s Second Compilation (Pages 52-54)

Approximately the year AH 25, Uthman Ibn Affan made the decision to compile the Qur’an.

The news of dispute about which Qur’an was right reached Uthman, so he rose up and said, “You are in my presence, yet you disagree about it and say it incorrectly.  Those who are in faraway regions are even in more disagreement and grammatical incorrectness.  Gather ye, O Companions of Muhammad, and write for the people an Iman [a standard to follow].”  He also said, “Your Prophet was just taken fifteen years ago, and you already disagree about the Qur’ans text itself?”

Moreover, the expansion of Muslims and their mixing with other people groups led to the blending of languages.  So it appears that the evolutionary linguistic process would put the Qur’an in jeopardy of corruption, distortion, addition and deletion.

Reliance on Hafsa’s Manuscript (Pages 53-54)

There is no doubt that the presence of hundreds of Qur’anic manuscripts among the Muslims nutured the schism in the different cities and regions over which Qur’an was the standard one.  Certainly all the copies of the Qur’an were partial ones and not the complete manuscript.  The first compilation attempt revealed that the written Qur’anic manuscripts were spread among many Muslims, not taking into account the parts of the Qur’an that were committed to memory only.  The only copy that was completed by Zayd’s first committee took more than a year to compile.  It was the only copy that was considered somewhat complete and was ultimately given to Hafsa for safekeeping.  No extra copies of it were made for circulation.  He appointed an editing committee.  Uthman appointed a committee to twelve men from the two groups, the Emigrants, (al-Muhajirym) and the Helpers (al-Ansar).

Reliance on Hafsa’s Manuscript (continued) (Pages 53-54)

Uthman asked the compilation committee to write the Qur’an in the language of the Quraysh.  He sent copies to Islamic governing centers, ordering the governors to destroy the codices in their possession.

Uthman returned Hafsa’s copy to her, and she kept it until the days of the rule of Marwan Ibn al-Hakam.  Abd Allah Ibn ‘Umar (Hafsa’s brother) sent Marwan Umar a copy and he burned it, “fearing something might be different from what Uthman copied.”

Ibn Mas’ud’s Rejection

Ibn Mas’ud refused to acknowledge the ‘Uthmanic codex for personal reasons.  His heart was filled with bitterness because he was excluded from the compilation committee.

Difference Between the Two Compilations

Abu Bakr’s Compilation vs. Uthman’s Compilation (Pages 55-56)

It is obvious that the decision of Abu Bakr and U’mar to compile the Qur’an aimed to secure a comprehensive copy of the Qur’anic passages in one place.  In other words, the compiling and archiving of the Qur’an was motivated by the fear that is could get lost.

The compilation of Uthman, on the other hand, was motivated by a desire to unify and standardize the differences between the versions.  Of all the languages he could have chosen, he selected the Quraysh language, arguing that the revelation came down in that tongue.  Uthman’s endeavor for unification was based on political motivations.  The Muslims were in need of a bond to hold them together and Islam was the common agent.  Since the Qur’an is the holy book of Islam, differences over the book would weaken the bond among Muslims.

The completion of the Qur’an was not free from flaws:

First, it has grammatical flaws (lahn) and the Arabs will fix them according to their tongues.

Second, it did not have the dots on the letters or the accents.

The absence of dotting and other diacritical markings kept the issue of the multiple readings present, which required a new intervention by the political authority.  This intervention took place when al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi revised some of the Qur’anic passages.

Multiple Masahif (Pages 56-58)

When ‘Uthman initiated the unification of the Qur’anic readings, he relied on Hafsa’s mushaf but did not strictly copy it.  His committee started the process of reviewing and revising Hafsa’s mushaf, or codex, as well as organizing the suras.

Ubayy Ibn Ka’b’s Codex

Accounts tell us that Ubayy participated in the first compilation committee.  He prepared his own special codex.  It differs from ‘Uthman’s approved codex in order of suras.  It also contains two additional suras: al-Kbal’ and al-Hafd.

Ali’s Codex

Ali Ibn Abi-Talib supposedly had his own Qur’an.  According to some Islamic sources, Ali collected the Qur’an after Muhammad’s death, when he swore he would not leave his house until the Qur’an is compiled in one book.  In defense of Ali’s claim, al-Sijistani explains that the expression “compile the Qur’an” means to memorize it.

According to Shiite opinion, Ali should have been the first successor to Muhammad so they believe his copy of the Qur’an is the correct version and any other copy is corrupted.

In spite of this contention, the Shiites today consider the circulated Qur’an a holy book and they will continue to use it until the coming of al-Mahdi, who they believe will bring the true uncorrupted Qur’an.

Conclusion

The political issues of the time motivated the compilation of the Qur’an, and that initiation came from ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab.  The work started during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, but it appears that the compiling was not completed ion the time of Abu Bakr.  Therefore ‘Umar continued with the task of compiling and that is why some sources claim that Umar was the first top compile the Qur’an.  One source says that ‘Umar ordered the collection of the Qur’anic passages, but he was killed while work was underway, so ‘Uthman worked to complete the task.

In the modern era, Muslims still have two separate readings: (Page 60)

·         Reading of Hafs (d. AH 190/AD 805)

·         Reading of Warsh (d. AH197/AD812)

The Sana is the oldest Qur’anic manuscript currently available.

The German Orientalist, G. Puin, conducted research on the manuscript and found that significant changes were made to the Qur’an.  What this discovery tells us is that the present Qur’an is not Muhammad’s Qur’an.

Chronological Sequence of the Qur’an (Pages 65-66)

One difficulty that faces the student of the Qur’an is that its order is not based on the principle of chronological sequence.  Because of its relation to theological issues, Muslim scholars gave careful attention to the issue of arrangement of the Qur’an text.

The Study of the arrangement of the Qur’anic text falls within a field of research in the study of the Qur’an known as M’arifat al-Makki wa al-Madani (knowing the Meccan and the Medinan”).  Muslim Qur’anic scholars coined the terms Meccan and Medinan and gave them three distinct definitions:

1.      Meccan:  The portion of the Qur’an revealed in Mecca before and after the Hegira. [Geography]

Medinan:  The portion of the Qur’an revealed in Medina. [Geography]

2.      Meccan:  Each speech addressed to the people of Mecca. [Audience]

Medinan:  Each speech addressed to the people of Median [Audience]

3.      Meccan:  The portion of the Qur’an revealed in Mecca before the migration.

Medinan:  The portion of the Qur’an revealed after the migration, whether in Medina, or Mecca, or in any other place during the raids of Muhammad. [It helps in defining the chronological succession.]

Arrangements of the Suras (Pages 66-67)

According to a narrative attributed to Ibn ‘Abbas, the Meccan portion of the Qur’an consists of eight-five suras, while the Medinan portion is twenty-eight suras.

Regarding the arrangement of the Qur’an, Islamic scholars have presented two opinions:

·         The arrangement of the Qur’an is “instituted”, meaning by the order and guidance of Muhammad.

·         The arrangement of the Qur’an is “adaptable”, based on the labors of the compilation committee.

After gathering the verses in an independent sura, the collectors decided to set a simple arrangement based on a quantitative basis from longer to shorter.  The current breakdown of the Qur’an is based on four categories:

1.      The “lengthy” (al-tuwal) – long suras (more than 100 verses)

2.      The “one-hundreds” (al-ma’un) – which follow the seven longest suras, each containing approximately 100 verses.

3.      The “double digits” (al-mathani) – following the one-hundreds and containing less than one hundred verses each.

4.      The “sectioned” (al-mufassal) – following the double digits. These are the shortest of the suras.  [These suras contain fewer abrogations.]

Alternative Qur’an Arrangements (Pages 67-68)

It is important to note that the current arrangement of the Qur’an is not the only arrangement and that the overall arrangement of the Qur’an – its suras, verses and sometimes even the arrangement of words within the verses-seemed of little importance to Muhammad.

Arrangement and Compilation of the Qur’an Based on the Probable (Pages 71-72)

The Qur’an is organized by the length and not the chronology of its suras.  Muhammad did not stick to the Qur’anic text literally but was lenient with the readings.  Muhammad did not see the need to write down the Qur’an precisely, which is why he did not put into effect any methodology to compile it.  The task of accomplishing this mission and the laying down of its essential rules was left to his followers.

After ‘Uthman’s committee compiled the Qur’an, it used the quantitative arrangement (from longer to shorter).  This arrangement relied, however, on what the eyes estimated the size of the pages to be and not on the number of verses.  Perhaps the editorial committee was dealing with manuscripts of different lengths and script sizes that concealed the true length of the suras.  Nonetheless, this categorization does not explain the strongest and most prominent violations against the quantitative principle mentioned here.

Noldeke presented one reason for this arbitrary ordering: “The motive behind this noteworthy method might be the fear of fully completing the task, which might incite hidden evil forces.”

Arrangement of Verses (Pages 72-73)

The arrangement or sequence of the verses in the Qur’an is very unusual.  Not only are the verses not in chronological order but verses from different eras (Meccan and Medinan) have been intermingled together in the same context or sura.

Shiite Observations

They considered it evidence of the neglect in the arrangement of the verses in the ‘Uthmanic codex.

They also considered it as evidence for the existence of intermittence and distortion in the text.  For instance, the natural succession of one verse is not found in the verse that follows, for it show up in a much farther place.  This discontinuity affects the cohesion of the verse’s context.  The natural sequence can only occur if the verse’s complements are found and rejoined together from the various separate places.

Dating Qur’anic Text (Pages 74-77)

Hirschfeld establishes and describes five critical criteria for understanding the Qur’an (Confirmatory, Declamatory, Narrative, Descriptive, and Legislative.)

Conclusion (Page 77)

The quantitative principle, from longer to shorter, was the best resolution, and maybe the only one, to the problem of Qur’anic arrangement.  This method allowed the compilers to bypass the dilemma of dating.

Arranging the Qur’an according to a chronology was almost impossible.  Most of the texts were merely committed to memory.

Abrogation and the Abrogated (Page 81)

Q 22.52 contains one of the earliest allusions of abrogation.

Abrogation in the Qur’an (Page 82)

Abrogation in the Qur’an means the annulment of the authority or ruling of a verse.  It also means substituting one verse for another.

Removing the verse from the Qur’an

Substituting one verse with another

Altering the ruling of a verse, where one position is transferred to another.

The domain of abrogation is the jurisprudential system wherein abrogation makes “the permitted forbidden, and the forbidden permitted.  IT made the permissible unlawful and unlawful permissible.”

Abrogation also includes sociopolitical issues.  For instance, every tendency towards peace in the Qur’an is abrogated.  The most famous abrogating verse is the Sword (al-Sayf) verse:  “But when the sacred months are passed away, kill the idolate3rs wherever ye may find then…” (Q9.5).  This particular verse abrogates 114 other verses that call for peace with and tolerance for non-Muslims.

Modes of Abrogation (Pages 82-83)

Abrogation divide verses into the following modes:

1.      The verses whose recitations are abrogated but whose rulings remain in effect.  An example is the stoning verse (al-rajm):  “If an elderly man and an elderly woman committed adultery, stone them.”

2.      The verses whose ruling was abrogated but whose recitation remains in effect.  This mode is sort found in the writing on “the abrogating and the abrogated.”

3.      The verses whose reading and rulings are abrogated.

The “forgotten verse” can also be perceived as a mode of abrogation.  These “forgotten verses” are referred to in Q 2.106 “…or cause thee to forget…”

Tools of Abrogation (Page 84)

Muslim scholars, who have sought the abrogation of a verse, primarily rely on the Qur’an for guidance.  However, some believe Muhammad’s saying and actions can also be uses as a tool:

1.      Based on the verse, Islamic scholars say that the Qur’an can only be abrogated by the Qur’an.

2.      Others say that it is possible for Muhammad’s Sunna, a prescribed Islamic way of life based on narrative records of Muhammad’s sayings (hadiths) or actions to abrogate the Qur’an.

Abrogation Unique to the Qur’an (Page 84)

The scholars of Islam say the phenomenon of abrogation is a distinctive feature of Islam and does not apply to any other religion.

Muhammad had said that the verses of the Qur’an were revealed to him from above, he changed this understandable phenomenon to a phenomenon that causes confusion, wherein the abrogation process makes Allah look like one who cannot make up his mind, a perception which goes against the nature of deity as understood by Christians and Muslims alike.

Importance of Studying Abrogation (Pages 84-85)

The study of abrogation is one of the tools of discovering the theoretical and doctrinal development of Islam.  Knowing the abrogated ruling, why a verse was abrogated, and by whose authority it was abrogated helps in understanding the history of Muhammad in particular, and the early history of Islam in general.  Also since the abrogated verses belong to the earliest period of Muhammad’s ministry, the study of abrogation helps in studying the arrangement of the Qur’anic texts.  When the Qur’an was compiled, the issue of arranging the abrogating and the abrogated was not taken into consideration.  As a result, there are cases in the Qur’an in which the abrogating verse precedes the abrogated verse, instead of following it, as it should be.

Conclusion (Pages 85-86)

Muslims agree that any abrogation of the Qur’an after Muhammad’s death is not acceptable, even if scholars unanimously want to carry it out.

Variant Readings of the Qur’an (Pages 91-92)

The roots of the variant readings of the Qur’an go back to the time of Muhammad.  The historical record shows an event that sheds light on the presence of differences in the various readings of the Qur’an among the Muslims.

Muhammad responded, “Thus it was revealed.”  He added, “This Qur’an was revealed in seven different abruf letters (readings or dialects).  Read of it what you find to be easier.

Variant Readings of the Qur’an (continued) (Pages 91-92)

There could be a myriad of combinations and potential variances based on the dot issue without even taking into account the diacritical markings.

Ibn Mujah and the Seven Readings versus the fifty Reading (Pages 92-93)

Ibn Shannabudh (d. AH 328/AD 939) [Page 93]

Ibn Miqsam al-Attar (d. AH 354/AD 965) [Pages 93-94]

Ibn Mujahid (Page 94)

Ibn Mujahid specified three conditions for considering a reading to be sound:

1.      Reading is transmitted through trustworthy scholars from Muhammad himself (the chain of transmission is sound).

2.      Reading is permissible (palatable) in Arabic (agrees with the Arabic language).

3.      Reading is in accordance with the text of the Qur’an (agrees with the way a word is drawn in the text of ‘Uthman).

When Ibn Mujahid applied these conditions on the commonly used reading of his time, he found there were far too many in existence.  Consequently, he decided to adopt seven reading from among the most common found among the people.  As the reason for his specifying seven only, it is said it was in remembrance of the fact that ‘Uthman had sent out seven copies.

Widening the Seven Readings (Pages 94-95)

Over a period of centuries, the number of accepted readings doubled.

The Ten Readings (Pages 94-95)

The Fourteen Readings (Page 95)

Deviant Readings (Page 95)

Readings excluded from these lists were considered to be deviant readings.  The readings outside the list of the approved readings did not lessen their authority.  Instead, in several instances the deviant readings were considered stronger than the approved ones.

Discussions Among Muslims (Pages 96-97)

The use of seven (and later, more) variant readings produced ongoing and often divisive discussion by Muslim scholars regarding the meanings and difference among all these readings.

Meaning of the Seven (Page 96)

·         One group of scholars said that the seven letters referred to the dialects of seven tribes:  Quraysh, Kinana, Assad, Hadhil, Banu Tamim, Dabba, and Qays.

·         A second group said that having seven letters permits freedom in applying grammar, allowing those who had different dialects to overcome the difficulties that are particular to them.

·         Yet another group believed that the seven letters were a symbolic representation of a wider number – that the number is not limited to seven readings, but each group could read according to its dialect.  The aim was to make it easier for the people, so that each group could read by its own language.

Difference in the Readings (Pages 96-97)

According to Ibn Qutayba, there are seven differences in reading:

1.      The difference in grammar without changing the transcription of the word.  In this difference only the diacritical marks are different.

2.      The difference in grammar that changes the meaning without changing the transcription of the word.  Grammar is changed in some readings, changing the diacritical marks and meanings.

3.      The difference in the letters of the words, which in turn changes their meanings, without changing the grammar.

4.      The difference in the entire word, without changing the meaning.

5.      The difference in the word and its meaning.

6.      The difference in the order of the words.

7.      The difference by addition and omission.

Ibn Outayba omitted two more kinds:

8.      The difference by deletion.

9.      The difference by addition.

Current Variant Readings of the Qur’an (Pages 97-98)

There are ten readings of the Qur’an present today in the hands of the Muslims.  Each reading has two narrators.  Therefore, there are twenty narrations of the Qur’an proceeding out of the ten readings. 

The more significant problem comes from the fact that there are many words that have a different meaning when one reads from the variant reading to another.  As a result, one will find different religious rulings based on those different meanings.

Most Common Variant Readings of the Qur’an

Of the present ten readings, there are four major variant reading by different readers still in recent circulation:

*Reading of Hafs (originally the reading of Kufa in Iraq, this reading now represents the reading of the majority of Muslims in the world.

* Reading of Warsh (Originally, it was the reading of Medina [Yathrib]

* Reading of Qalun

* Reading of al-Duri according to Abu Amir

Conclusion (Pages 99-102)

What do these readings reveal? (Pages 100-101)

Islamic doctrine states that the Qur’an has one source, Allah.

It declares that the Qur’an has one copy in al-Lawh al Mahfuz (the Preserved Tablet).  But this belief generates many questions concerning these variant readings.

There are two benefits from studying the Qur’anic variant readings:

·         Familiarity with old linguistic grammatical, morphological, and verbal forms that are no longer in use.

·         Evidence refuting the Qur’ans claim of ijaz (“inimitability”)

Muqatta’at

(The Stand-alone Letters) (Pages 107-108)

Some Qur’anic suras begin with one or more individual letters of the alphabet, most commonly referred to as muqatta’at, which translated, mean “disjointed letters.”  They are also called fawathih, or “openers,” because they form the opening of multiple suras.

In total muqatta’at appear in twenty-nine suras of the Qur’an.  In Arabic, they are written in the image of the letter but not in the name or pronunciation of the letter.

Some of these opening letters are counted as verse; however, others are considered part of a verse.

Muqatta’at are Attention Grabbers (Page 108)

It was said that the idol worshippers would stay away from Muhammad when he started reciting the Qur’an , so the muqatta’at were revealed to draw the attention of the one who refused to hear the Qur’an.

Another similar opinion states that these letters are a form of “call letters” to command the attention of even the devout listener, such as saying, “Hey!” when calling to someone.

Critique of the First Opinion (Pages 108-109)

Muqatta’at are a Divine Secret (Page 109)

Another group of scholars stated that these letters are “Allah’s secret in the Qur’an, and it is not befitting for anyone to discuss them.”  All of the four caliphs after Muhammad, as well as Ibn Mas’ud, were proponents of this opinion.  They said, “Muquatta’at are of that which is kept hidden and cannot be explained.”

Critique of the Second Opinion (Pages 109-110)

Muqatta’at are Symbolic (Page 110)

The third opinion, which occupies a large section in the exegetical sources, states that these letters are merely symbols and signs.

Overall, the symbolism claim includes the following points: (Pages 110-111)

1.      Some of these letters symbolize Allah’s names and others signify one of his attributes.

2.      Some of these letters symbolize Allah’s names, while others symbolize other names.

3.      These letters symbolizes names for the Qur’an.

4.      These letters contain prophetic knowledge of time periods concerned with major historical events.

Critique of the Third Opinion (Page 111)

Muslim scholars deny that the Qur’an contains anything that people cannot understand.  The scholars add “that what is intended by words to make one understand it; however, if it cannot be understood, then using it to communicate will be vain and foolish.”

Suras Containing Maquatta’at (Page112)

A List of Opening Letters (Page 113)

Women in the Qur’an (Page 118)

The Qur’an is the source of all personal status laws in Islamic countries.  Therefore, the rules of religious jurisprudence concerning the position and treatment of women are also based on the Qur’an.  In order to fully understand the position of women in Islam, one must first examine the Qur’anic rules concerning them.

The Qur’anic Image of Women (Page 117)

The Qur’an provides many provocative descriptions regarding the nature of women and their intrinsic value in comparison to men.

A.  Evil Beings (Page 117-118)

The Qur’an treats women with an attitude of suspicion.  It presents them as a source of danger to men.  The description of women in Q12, portraying them as possessing kayd, is clearly used in the context of an insult.  Their innocence is a façade that hides the evil or cunning that is within them.  Furthermore, this kayd keeps them busy contriving plots.

B.  Incomplete Beings (Page 118)

According to the Qur’an, a woman is an incomplete being.  This depiction is illustrated by the following laws:

First, the Qur’an dictates that a woman’s portion of an inheritance should be only half of what a male receives:  “God/Allah instructs you concerning your children; for a male the like of the portion of two females…” (Q4.11, 176)

Second, the testimony in a court of law by a woman does not carry as much weight as it does by a man.  Instead, her testimony is valued at half a man’s unless there are two women testifying.  Furthermore, the Qur’an dictates that when a business transaction takes place between two people, two men must witness it, or one man and two women.  That way, if one woman forgets what transpired, “the second of the two may remind the other…” (Q2.282).

The Qur’an’s Ruling on the Veil (Page 119)

Muhammad declared in Q 33.59 that a distinction could be made between a free woman and a female slave thus he ordered the free women to wear a veil, which would distinguish them from slaves:  “O thou prophet! Tell they wives and thy daughters, and the women of the believers, to let down over them their outer wrappers; that is nearer for them to be known and that they should not be annoyed…” (Q 33.59).

The Qur’an’s Rules on Marriage (Page 119-126)

The Qur’an uses the term al-nikah for marriage (Q 33.49)

While the Qur’an does not put a minimum limit on the marriageable age for women, it clearly states that it is permissible for a young girl to be given in marriage before she reaches adulthood.

A.  Man’s Supreme Authority (Page 120)         

The Qur’an gives a man complete authority in marriage:  “Men stand superior to women…(Q 4.34)

B.  Wife’s Relationship to Husband (Pages 120-121)

In Islam, the wife is a slave to her husband.  Muhammad told men that women are ‘awan, meaning that they are equivalent to captives.

The Sunna,(prescribed actions and customs), of Muhammad stress that a woman should obey her husband’s commands.

Obedience and reverence towards her husband are two of the wife’s duties.  These duties form an element of worship for her.

Husband’s Right to Punish His Wife (Page 121-1213)

The Qur’an gives the husband the right to punish his wife if she goes outside the parameters that he draws for her.  It provides men with instructions:  “But those whose perverseness ye fear, admonish them and remove them into bed-chambers and beat them; but if they submit to you, then do not seek a way against them…” (Q 4.34)

If a wife expressed her dislike about a matter, refuses to have sexual intercourse with her husband, or leaves the house without her husband’s permission, she is considered disloyal.  The man should deal with sexual and behavioral “disobedience” with the “surgical tools” given to him by the Qur’an rulings:  instructing, sexual punishing, and beating.

1.  Instructing (Page 121)

At the beginning of marriage, a husband reminds his wife about the rights that are given to him by Shari’a (Islamic laws).  If the wife refuses to fulfill the sexual desires of her husband, then he should remind her of his rights over her body.

2.  Sexual Punishing (al-Hajr) [Page 122]

This word has two interpretations:

*Desertion

If a wife remains “disobedient,” her husband should ignore her.  This means he should cease talking to her as well as sharing a bed with her.

2.  Sexual Punishing (al-Hajr) [Page 122] (continued)

Forced Sexual Intercourse (“tightening the bindings”)

Another form of discipline is given in Q 4.34.  This verse prescribes hajr as an appropriate way to deal with an insubordinate wife.  This interpretation means that the term wa’hjuruhunna in Q 4.34 (“refuse and force her to have sexual intercourse.”)

3.  Beating (Page 123)

If the previous methods, including instruction and verbal abuse, fail to correct a wife’s behavior, then a husband is given the right to beat his wife.

Husband’s Rights over Wife’s Body (Pages 123-124)

The Qur’an regards sexual intercourse as an act of the man that a woman receives.  She is merely an object used for his enjoyment:  “Your women are your tilth, so come into your tillage how you choose…” (Q 2.223)

According to the Qur’an, a wife has no right over her own body.  She is merely like farmland that her husband plows.

Polygamy (Pages 124-125)

The Qur’an permits polygamy.  Q 4.3 states “then marry what seems good to you of woman, by twos, or threes, or fours,” as long as they are dealt with justly.  The commentators explain that to “be equitable” means that the husband should have equal desire towards all his wives.  He is not to spend an undue amount of time with one wife, thereby neglecting the others.

Overall, polygamy strengthened the ability of the Muslim to invade.  It became somewhat of a production machine to reinforce Muslim armies with hoards of men able to go forth in battle.

Divorce and Remarriage (Page 125)

The Qur’an endorses a method of divorce whereby a husband has the right to divorce his wife twice.  However, it states that after the third, a divorced woman is not allowed to return to her first husband “until she marr[ies] another husband” (Q 2.230).

Prescribed Waiting Period (Pages 125-126)

In the event that her husband dies, a woman is instructed to remain as a prisoner in her own home for four months and ten days.  She is not allowed to adorn herself.  After this period has ended, she then has the right to leave her house and get married (Q 2.234).

In the case of divorce, a woman has to abide by the prescribed waiting period.  For an older woman who is post menopausal and for a young woman who has not yet started her menstrual period, the duration of this period is three months.  The waiting period for a pregnant woman is the remainder of her pregnancy (Q 65.4).

The Qur’an’s Rules on Temporary Marriage (al-Mut’a) [Page 126]

The enjoyment marriage (al-mut’a) is a temporary marriage similar to a normal marriage in that it is based on a contract, but it differs in that divorce occurs automatically at the end of the period agreed upon in the contract.

Quiet often the children of al-mut’a are attributed genealogically to their mother because the father was often just a passerby in the mother’s town.  Contact between the father and the mother would often cease at the end of the contract, and the children would take the name of the mother and her tribe.  Muhammad incorporated this practice into Islam, as shown in this verse:  “…but such of them as ye have enjoyed, give them their hire as a lawful due…” (Q 4.24)

Female Slaves “that your right hand possesses” (Pages 126-127)

The Qur’an gives a man the right to sexually enjoy his female slaves without regard for their familial status before being taken captive-that is, whether they were married or not (Q 4.3, 24).  Because the Qur’an views a female slave as property, she has to obey all of her owner’s command.

Since the Qur’an views a male slave as property as well, the Muslim owner has the right to deal with his male slave’s marital tie.  One of the Shiite sources of law states that if an owner marries his male slave to his female slave, but then the owner desires her, he can command the male slave to renounce her.  If she has completed her menstrual period, then the owner can sleep with her.

Shiite jurisprudence further allows a practice called “lending the pudendum.”  This practice allows the owner to lend his female slave to a relative or friend for sexual enjoyment.  When he is finished with her, the relative or friend returns her to her owner.

Moreover, the Shiite rulings allow the practice of al-fahr, which permits a man to have sexual intercourse with two female slaves simultaneously.

Conclusion (Pages 127-128)

Two factors dictate the position of women in Islam.  The first is the written record found in the Qur’an and the sayings of Muhammad as recorded in the hadith.  These sources are fixed and remain unchanged by time and place.  The second Is the social environment.  This latter factor can change according to historical context and culture.

The Qur’an and People of Other Faiths (Page 133)

Sura al-Tawba (Q 9) is the foundation for Islam’s perception and treatment of non-Muslims.  It provides value judgments regarding all other religions and organizes a set of principles for dealing with their adherents.  Finally this sura settles the understanding of jihad by describing it as a duty-bound tool for dealing with the unbelievers, “the misbelievers,” of Islam.

Warlike Tone of al-Tawba (Pages 133-134)

In general, this sura conveys a warlike quality, as evidence in two areas.

A.  Names of the Sura

Exegetical sources mention different names for the sura.  The most common  al-Bara’a (“Disavowal by God”) and al-Tawba (“Repentance”).

B.  Omission of Al-Basmala

Q9 is the only sura in the Qur’an that does not begin with the Basmala

(“In the name of the merciful and compassionate God…”)

1.      Basmala refers to mercy and security, yet this sura contains verses that encourages fighting.

2.      During the time of this sura’s revelation, the Arabs would typically remove the Basmala when writing a document that contained a breach to a covenant.

The imprinting of this sura with the “war brand” goes back to the fact that it was composed during several stages of time that were full of military battles. (Page 134)

·         Making preparations to occupy Mecca also the Battle of Hunayn

·         Carrying out the Raid of Tabuk along the Syrian borders

·         Annulling the peace treaties

The sura divides the people of other religions into two groups:

·         Al-mushrikun (“the idolaters”): People who believe in non-biblical faiths

·         People of the Book:  Jews and Christians

Based on this division, Q9 specifies the rules for the treatment of these groups

Treatment of al-Mushrikun (“idolaters”) (verses 1-28) [Page 134]

As prescribed in Q9, Muslims must force, if necessary, idolaters to accept Islam or risk captivity or death by Muslim forces, because al-mushrikun are dishonest, evil and unclean.

A.     Extermination Campaign (verses 1-6) [Page 135]

B.      Discredit of the Idolaters (verses 7, 8, and 10) [Paged 136] (Dishonest/Evil)

C.      Idolater’s Uncleanliness (verse 28) [Page 136] Najasun – (“unclean”)

This word does not appear anywhere else in the Qur’an.  Al-rijsu – (“abomination”) which means “dirty” a thing that is nasty or an ugly act.

Treatment of People of the Book (verses 29-35)

These verses address the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) and contain several accusations to justify Islamic law against them.

1.      They do not believe in Allah

2.      They do not believe in the Day of Judgment

3.      They do not keep the prohibitions of Islam (Q 9:29)

4.      They do not adopt Islam as their religion (Q 9.29)

Treatment of People of the Book (verses 29-35) [continued]

A.  Al-Jizya (verse 29) [Page 137-138]

A fine (tribute) for living in Islamic lands

“by their hands” (‘an yadin)

“and be as little ones” (wa bam saghirun)

Saghir (“subdued”) – the Christian or the Jew would present the jizya in spite of his hatred of it.

B.  False Accusations (Pages 138-139)

Q9 verses plant hatred in Muslims by presenting allegations to create a negative image of the People of the Book [vv. 29, 30, 31, 32, 34]

“To have shirk in Allah:  to have a partner in his reign…the noun is al-shirky… to associate with Allah a partner in his Lordship…”

C.  Loyalty and Repudiation (verses 23, 24, 71, 113, 114) [Pages 139-140]

The Qur’an points out the necessity of being at enmity with all who are at enmity with Islam (Q58.22).  Also it is not permissible for a Muslim to ask for forgiveness for a non-Muslim, even if that person is dead.

Treatment of Both Groups by Means of Jihad (“holy war”) [Pages 140-142]

Despite the differences between the People of the Book and al-mushrikun, Q 9 makes both groups the focused target of jihad.

A.  Imperative to fight non-Muslims (verses 14-16)

Al-Zuhaili notes that killing the enemy had a psychological benefit for Muslims:  “It is a removal of the anguish or the sorrow of the hearts of the Muslims who were hurt by the idolaters breaking their covenant.”

B.  Foreign Invasion

In the ninth year of the Hegira, Muhammad carried out a raid on the Syrian borders that became known later as the Raid of Tabuk (AH9/AD631).  This was the first Islamic military skirmish outside the Arabian Peninsula.  Verses 38-39 of Q 9 helped to incite the invasion and threaten those who refused to take up arms with punishment of hellfire.

C.  Elimination of Critics

In the second part of Q 9.12 is a command to fight anyone who criticizes Islam.  Thus, criticizing Islam or critiquing the life of Muhammad, is considered a crime punishable by death.